Sentence Structure

Run-on sentences and comma splices are two common sentence structure mistakes that can make writing confusing. While they may seem similar, they are different errors:

• A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (complete sentences) are joined incorrectly without proper punctuation or a conjunction.
• A comma splice happens when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by only a comma.

Let’s look at examples of both errors and how to fix them.

Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence happens when two complete thoughts are put together without punctuation or a conjunction.

🔴 Incorrect:
👉 She loves to read she spends hours at the library.
(Two independent clauses are joined with no punctuation.)

✅ Ways to Fix It:

1. Use a period:
   She loves to read. She spends hours at the library.
2. Use a semicolon:
   She loves to read; she spends hours at the library.
3. Use a comma + coordinating conjunction:
   She loves to read, so she spends hours at the library.

Comma Splices

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined only by a comma, which is not strong enough to connect them.

🔴 Incorrect:
👉 It started to rain, we ran inside.
(A comma alone cannot join these two complete sentences.)

✅ Ways to Fix It:

1. Use a period:
   It started to rain. We ran inside.
2. Use a semicolon:
   It started to rain; we ran inside.
3. Use a comma + coordinating conjunction:
   It started to rain, so we ran inside.
4. Use a subordinating conjunction:
   When it started to rain, we ran inside.

Proper punctuation and conjunctions help keep your writing clear, avoiding run-ons and comma splices.

Seasons

Seasons are not capitalized...

If the season is a part of a proper name, capitalize it.
Proper names are always capitalized.

If the season is the first word in the sentence, capitalize it.
The first word in a sentence always begins with a capital letter.

Otherwise, seasons are not capitalized.


Here are ten sentences in which the seasons are used:

Spring* brings new life to the garden as flowers bloom.  

We spent the entire summer at the beach, soaking up the sun.  

The crisp air of autumn makes it perfect for long walks.  

Snow covered the ground in the dead of winter.  

She always feels most alive in spring, when the world seems fresh and new.  

The heat of summer made everyone crave ice cream.  

Autumn* leaves crunched beneath our feet as we walked through the park.  

They built a snowman together during the first snowfall of winter.  

9. The festival Spring* Fun takes place every spring when the cherry blossoms are in full bloom.  

10. By the end of summer, the days start to feel a little shorter.  

The only times the season is capitalized is when it's at the beginning of the sentence or part of a proper name.

Appositives

 What Is an Appositive?

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames or gives additional information about another noun in a sentence.

👉 Example: My friend Emma loves detective novels.
(Emma renames my friend and tells us exactly who she is.)

Types of Appositives

1. Essential (Restrictive) Appositives

• These are necessary for the meaning of the sentence.
• No commas are used.

🔹 Example: The poet Langston Hughes was a leader of the Harlem Renaissance.
(If we remove Langston Hughes, the sentence becomes unclear — "the poet" could be anyone.)

2. Nonessential (Nonrestrictive) Appositives

• These add extra (but not necessary) information.
• Use double commas to set them off.

🔹 Example: Langston Hughes, a famous poet, was a leader of the Harlem Renaissance.
(If we remove a famous poet, the sentence still makes sense.)

The Importance of Double Commas

When using nonessential appositives, you must use a pair of commas — one before and one after the appositive. Leaving out the second comma can confuse readers.

🔴 Incorrect: My brother, a skilled musician plays the piano.
(Without the second comma, "a skilled musician plays the piano" sounds like a complete clause  or sentence.)

✅ Correct: My brother, a skilled musician, plays the piano.
(The commas clearly show that a skilled musician is extra information.)

🚩

When the appositive comes at the beginning of the sentence, there is no need for a comma before the noun it renames because the main sentence is still grammatically complete without the appositive.

✅ Correct: A skilled musician, my brother plays the piano.

Why is there no comma before "my brother"?

• If we remove a skilled musician, we are left with My brother plays the piano, which is a complete sentence on its own.
• The introductory appositive is simply extra information, so we set it off with one comma after it, not before.

However, when the appositive is in the middle of the sentence, it interrupts the flow and requires two commas to properly separate it.

✅ Correct: My brother, a skilled musician, plays the piano.

Mastering appositives and commas will make your writing clearer and more polished! 

Multiple Adjectives

In English, when we use multiple adjectives to describe a noun, they usually follow a specific order. If the adjectives are not in the right order, the sentence becomes confusing or difficult to understand.

The Standard Adjective Order

Adjectives generally follow this sequence:

1. Opinion – what you think about something (e.g., stylish, cozy, funny, scary)
2. Size – how big or small it is (e.g., little, huge)
3. Age – how old it is (e.g., old, modern)
4. Shape – the form of something (e.g., round, square)
5. Color – what color it is (e.g., black, dark)
6. Origin – where it comes from (e.g., Spanish, American)
7. Material – what it’s made of (e.g., leather, stone, metal)
8. Purpose – what it’s used for (e.g., running shoes, sleeping bag)

Formula:
Opinion → Size → Age → Shape → Color → Origin → Material → Purpose + Noun

Let’s take an example:

🚫 A wooden small beautiful old jewelry box ❌

What’s wrong here?

1. Opinion ("beautiful") should come first, but it's placed after "small."
2. Size ("small") should come before age, but it’s after "wooden."
3. Material ("wooden") should be near the end, but it appears too early.

Now, in the correct order:

✅ A beautiful small old wooden jewelry box

Let’s look at how adjectives should be ordered for different objects:

Shoes

We have the adjectives: stylish, black, Spanish, leather

• Stylish (opinion)
• Black (color)
• Spanish (origin)
• Leather (material)

✅ Stylish black Spanish leather shoes

Cottage

We have the adjectives: cozy, little, stone

• Cozy (opinion)
• Little (size)
• Stone (material)

✅ A cozy little stone cottage

Cartoon

We have the adjectives: funny, old, American

• Funny (opinion)
• Old (age)
• American (origin)

✅ A funny old American cartoon

Gate

We have the adjectives: huge, scary, dark, metal

• Scary (opinion)
• Huge (size)
• Dark (color)
• Metal (material)

✅ A scary huge dark metal gate

Perfect: Present versus Past

Present Perfect vs. Past Perfect

Present Perfect (Have/Has + Past Participle)

Use:
Connects past actions to the present — the action happened at an unspecified time or still has relevance now.

Examples:

1. I have finished my report.
   (It’s done, and this fact is relevant now.)
2. She has traveled to Italy several times.
   (It happened before now, but we’re not specifying when.)
3. We have known each other for years.
   (The action started in the past and continues.)

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Past Perfect (Had + Past Participle)

Use:
Describes an action that happened before another past event — it’s the “past of the past.”

Examples:

1. I had finished my report before the meeting started.
   (The report was completed first, then the meeting happened.)
2. She had traveled to Italy before she moved to France.
   (Italy trips happened earlier in the timeline.)
3. We had known each other for years before we lost touch.
   (The knowing happened first, then we lost touch.)

---

Think of Present Perfect as a bridge between the past and present, while Past Perfect creates a clear sequence between two past events.

Example Pair:
Present Perfect: I have eaten dinner, so I’m not hungry now.
(Focus on present result — why I’m not hungry.)
Past Perfect: I had eaten dinner before they arrived.
(Two past events — eating happened first.)

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Colors & Writing 6